The Science of Reading for English Learners (Part II)

Part I of this blog series posed salient questions about the Science of Reading and English learners; we highlighted the current conversations experts are having in this subject area, including the Joint Statement, which addresses misconceptions around the Science of Reading for English learners. We also outlined the research that clarifies how to approach literacy instruction for English learners. To recap, English learners benefit from:

• Phonological awareness, phonics, vocabulary, comprehension, and fluency
• The five literacy components listed above, in conjunction with oral language development
• Language and literacy proficiency in their first language as a bridge to English literacy development (August & Shanahan, 2006)

It is important to understand that while language development is natural and our brains are wired to develop listening and speaking skills, learning to read and write is not—it requires explicit instruction (Moats & Tollman, 2009). Because English learners are learning a new language, they will also need explicit instruction to develop oral language. Let’s look at the language development of an English learner. Table 1 illustrates the five stages of second language acquisition defined by Krashen and Terrell (1983). Each stage describes the language skills typical for that particular stage and the general length of time needed to progress to the next stage. These stages correspond to students’ English proficiency levels as measured by state English language proficiency assessments. Understanding how language develops across the stages of second language acquisition can help you understand where students are in the process and where they need to move to be successful.

Table 1. Five Stages of Second Language Acquisition

Stage Time to Acquire Language*	Sample Student Behaviors
Pre-Production 0–6 months	Does not speak the target language but uses receptive language skills to comprehend spoken language Uses non-verbal responses May be reluctant to speak (known as the silent period)
Early Production 6 months–1 year	Speaks in short phrases or words but still relies on listening and other cues to comprehend language Uses present tense verbs
Speech Emergence 1–3 years	Speaks in short sentences and uses more vocabulary but still uses context clues to comprehend meaning Uses language more freely; makes fewer errors
Intermediate Fluency 3–5 years	Begins to speak with more fluency in social settings with minimal errors Uses simple sentences Makes errors in grammar and pronunciation Struggles in academic settings with high language demand and abstract concepts
Advanced Fluency 5–7 years	Has a near native-like level of speech Engages in academic activities with high language demand and abstract concepts

*Time refers to duration, not age. Source. Adapted from Krashen & Terrell (1983)

Just as the table above shows, much like any emergent or early reader, English learners will go through various stages of reading development as they learn to read in English. They will require explicit instruction in both code- and meaning-focused early and emergent literacy skills.

If you recall from Part I, English learners enter US schools with vastly different linguistic and cultural backgrounds and experiences. We compared the top three languages spoken by English learners in terms of phonology and orthography. Beyond having a basic understanding of the differences in phonology and orthography, it is critical for teachers to become familiar with and understand the impact of students’ language, culture, and background experiences. Understanding the impact of individual students’ backgrounds on successfully learning to read in English should compel teachers to learn more about their students (Fillmore & Snow, 2018). Key student characteristics to know about are as follows: 

• The student’s native language (L1) and culture. Does the student’s native language share the same alphabet used for English, or does it use a different system? Using materials such as books, artifacts, or video clips that reflect their language and culture will help engage them in learning academic and literacy concepts in English (Council of the Great City Schools, 2023).
• The student’s L1 literacy background. What is the extent of their native language literacy skills? Those skills will transfer to English literacy skills so teachers can capitalize on their L1 skills—remember the anecdote in Part I of our blog about Jessica, whose English literacy skills facilitated reading in Dutch!
• The student’s current English proficiency level. Do they already speak English, and if so, to what extent? Knowing their English proficiency levels in reading, writing, listening, and speaking will help you determine their language development needs as they engage in English literacy concepts and skills.
• The student’s literacy level in English. Do they already have reading skills in English, and if so, what is their reading level? You will want to build on those existing skills. Check with your district’s literacy office and collaborate with your reading coach to learn more about your student’s reading assessment data.
• The student’s educational experiences. How long has your student been enrolled in a US school and receiving language development services? The majority of English learners were born in the US and come from multilingual homes, so much of their exposure to English may come from their community and schools. However, other students have recently arrived in the US and are new to the school system. Some may have had typical formal education, whereas others may have had limited or interrupted formal education (e.g., refugees).

What do you do with student background information?

Once you know more about your students’ backgrounds, you are better equipped to plan for instruction. Moving forward, it is important to build your students’ oral language so that they have a foundation for building literacy skills, whether they are at the beginning, intermediate, or advanced stages of English language development. It is important to note that building oral proficiency in English happens at the same time you are introducing literacy and content area skills and concepts, and students have opportunities to build comprehension and word learning skills simultaneously (Baker et al., 2014; Council of the Great City Schools, 2023). Waiting for students to develop oral language proficiency would only delay language and literacy progress. And keep in mind that even if students receive support with developing these linguistic skills, some may still struggle with learning to read (just as we see with their English-speaking peers), but evidence-based solutions are available to help you address these challenges.

For an in-depth look at teaching literacy to English learners, be sure to read A Framework for Foundational Literacy Skills Instruction for English Learners: Instructional Practice and Materials Considerations by the Council of the Great City Schools.

Another excellent resource to help you with instructional planning is this What Works Clearinghouse Practice Guide, Teaching Academic Content and Literacy to English Learners in Elementary and Middle School (Baker et al., 2014), which includes four instructional recommendations, each with a set of How-to indicators for implementation that weave oral language development throughout. The first two recommendations described in this practice guide have a strong evidence base and focus on vocabulary development and interaction around content concepts and writing. Recommendations three and four emphasize developing writing skills and providing small group instruction for students who need additional support, respectively. Below are the four recommendations. Click here for a downloadable infographic with more details on how to implement each recommendation.

1. Teach a set of academic vocabulary words intensively across several days using a variety of instructional activities.
2. Integrate oral and written English language instruction into content-area teaching.
3. Provide regular, structured opportunities to develop written language skills.
4. Provide small-group instructional intervention to students struggling in areas of literacy and English language development.

This IES resource includes a multitude of supplemental resources to support teachers with implementation, such as video clips, infographics, and more!

So, what does reading instruction for English learners look like in the classroom?

This video clip shows how an ESOL teacher is working on reading basics—phonics—with three fifth grade newcomers. The students are learning English sounds in a small group setting through explicit instruction. Their teacher guides them through an activity where she asks them to identify vowel sounds in English. She compares them to sounds they know in their home language which bolsters their understanding of this reading lesson. In the interview, the teacher explains why it is important to offer a safe environment where the students feel more comfortable learning the basics that their English-speaking peers already know and that it would be inappropriate to place them in lower-grade-level classrooms where younger students are learning letter sounds and decoding skills.

To recap, English learner students need explicit instruction to support oral language and reading skill development. A well-equipped teacher of English learner students will take the time to understand the student’s background to best match their instruction to their needs in an age and culturally sensitive manner. In the next installation of this blog series, we will discuss the structures needed to be in place to support the reading development of English learners.

 

Authors: Jessica Folsom, PhD; Heidi Goertzen, PhD; Kimilee Norman-Goins (Editor); Region 7 Comprehensive Center

References

August, D., Shanahan, T., & Escamilla, K. (2009). English language learners: Developing literacy in second-language learners—Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth. Journal of Literacy Research, 41(4), 432-452.

Baker, S., Lesaux, N., Jayanthi, M., Dimino, J., Proctor, C. P., Morris, J., Gersten, R., Haymond, K., Kieffer, M. J., Linan-Thompson, S., & Newman-Gonchar, R. (2014). Teaching academic content and literacy to English learners in elementary and middle school (NCEE 2014-4012). National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE), Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/publications_reviews.aspx.

Council of the Great City Schools (2023). A Framework for Foundational Literacy Skills Instruction for English Learners: Instructional practice and materials considerations. CGCS_Foundational Literacy Skills_Pub_v12.pdf.

Fillmore, L. W., & Snow, C. E. (2018). What teachers need to know about language. In C. T. Adger, C. E. Snow, & D. Christian (Eds.), What teachers need to know about language (2nd ed.). Multilingual Matters.

Gersten, R., Baker, S.K., Shanahan, T., Linan-Thompson, S., Collins, P., & Scarcella, R. (2007). Effective Literacy and English Language Instruction for English Learners in the Elementary Grades: A Practice Guide (NCEE 2007-4011). National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/publications/practiceguides.